![]() At the same time, countries and companies have also established the ethics compliance review to address accountability and transparency concerns and to mitigate risks. ![]() Within the EU, the GDPR provides comprehensive and strict protection for facial data, and it gives individuals the right to informed consent and the right to delete. A total of 142 countries issued data privacy legislation by 2020, of which the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) issued by the European Union (EU) has the greatest influence (Greenleaf and Cottier, 2020). To prevent data breaches and protect overall privacy, various countries have launched personal data protection mechanisms and promulgated laws and regulations on data security. For example, in 2020 the Clearview AI data breach exposed the firm’s client list, resulting in bankruptcy (Hill, 2020). Data leaks can also lead to enormous, permanent damage to governments and enterprises. Leaked data violates individuals’ fundamental rights, such as the right to consent and deletion, privacy, equality and property (Brous et al., 2020 Raposo, 2022 Kindt, 2013). Furthermore, in the IoE environment, personal physiological data has the characteristics of uniqueness, forever identification, replicability, irreversibility of damage and relevance of information. These noncompliant and illegal data processing actions violate data protection laws (Raposo, 2022). In addition, the SenseNets Horizon company leaked billions of facial data. For example, in 2019 data leakage from Facebook in the United States impacted 540 million people. In the past 5 years, a large number of serious personal data leakage incidents have occurred around the world. ![]() The in-depth development of this data offers benefits to society for a variety of purposes in relation to authentication, border security, marketing, photo editing and social networking (Buckley and Hunter, 2011), but it also causes frequent data leakage events due to increased potential for a surveillance society (Buckley and Hunter, 2011). Given the relentless growth in IoE devices and their interaction with anybody with Internet access, virtually everything from physiological data to behaviour data is collected (Komendantova et al., 2021). We are now on the threshold of a new era of networking in which the Internet of Everything (IoE) can embrace IoE technologies, such as social networking, biometrics, multimedia and data mining, that can build relationships in various ways with terminals, platforms and users by connecting things, people, data and business processes (Adel and Michael, 2014). In addition, this study contributes to an understanding of what risks physiological data faces in order to inform individuals of how to manage their data carefully and to guide management parties on how to formulate robust policies and regulations that can ensure data security. We anticipate that this study will explain the manageability and traceability of personal physiological data during its lifecycle. Furthermore, the lack of laws and regulations and the immaturity of facial recognition technology are the two major basic events leading to facial data breaches. ![]() The study determined that personal factors, data management and supervision absence are the three intermediate events. Based on the risks identified, we then listed intermediate events and basic events according to the causal logic, and drew a complete fault tree diagram of facial data breaches. Thus, in this study, we adopted the fault tree analysis method to identify risks. However, current research has not identified a systematic and effective method for identifying these risks. As facial recognition technology has become prevalent and smarter over time, facial data associated with critical personal information poses a potential security and privacy risk of being leaked in the Internet of Everything application platform. Such data includes characteristics of uniqueness, identification, replicability, irreversibility of damage, and relevance of information, and this data can be collected, shared, and used in a wide range of applications. Personal physiological data is the digital representation of physical features that identify individuals in the Internet of Everything environment.
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